NETWORKING

Networking is the ultimate level of communication.It transcends works and pictures to provide pathway for thoughts,ideas, and dreams.Networking as it exists today is the result of millions of evolution and growth.

INTERNET

The world largest network.Millions of networks are connected with cast proportions of its own kind.

MAINTAINING

Computers should be maintained properly. It should always be in good condition

LAN

Local area networks have some specific architecture for communicating among the computers in the connection.

NETWORK

A connection of distributed, intelligent machines that share data and information through interconnected lines of communication is called network.

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Data Destruction

Often an extension of unauthorized access, data destruction means more than
just intentionally or accidentally erasing or corrupting data. It’s easy to imagine
some evil hacker accessing your network and deleting all your important files,
but consider the case in which authorized users access certain data, but what
they do to that data goes beyond what they are authorized to do. A good example
is the person who legitimately accesses aMicrosoft Access product database
to modify product descriptions, only to discover he or she can change the prices
of the products, too.
This type of threat is particularly dangerous when users are not clearly informed
about the extent to which they are authorized to make changes.A fellow
tech once told me about a user who managed to mangle an important database
due to someone giving him incorrect access.When confronted, the user said, “If
I wasn’t allowed to change it, the system wouldn’t let me do it!”Many users believe
that systems are configured in a paternalistic way that wouldn’t allow them
to do anything inappropriate. As a result, users will often assume they’re authorized
to make any changes they believe are necessarywhenworking on a piece of
data they know they’re authorized to access.

PCI

Intel introduced the PCI bus architecture in the early 1990s, and
the PC expansion bus was never again the same. Intel made many smart moves
with PCI, not the least of which was releasing PCI to the public domain to make
it very attractive to manufacturers. PCI provided awider, faster,more flexible alternative
than any previous expansion bus. The exceptional technology of the
new bus, combined with the lack of a price tag, made manufacturers quickly
drop ISA and the other alternatives and adopt PCI.
PCI really shook up the PC world with its capabilities. The original PCI bus
was 32 bits wide and ran at 33 MHz, which was superb, but these features were
expected and not earth-shattering. The coolness of PCI came from its ability to
coexist with other expansion buses.When PCI first came out, you could buy a
motherboard with both PCI and ISA slots. This was important because it enabled
users to keep their old ISA cards and slowly migrate to PCI. Equally impressive
was that PCI devices were (and still are) self-configuring, a feature that
led to the industry standard that became known as Plug and Play (PnP). Finally,
PCI had a powerful burstmode feature that enabled very efficient data transfers.

AGP
Shortly after Intel invented PCI, the company presented a specialized, videoonly
version of PCI called the accelerated graphics port (AGP). An AGP slot is a
PCI expansion bus slots PCI slot, but one with a direct connection to the Northbridge. AGP slots are
only for video cards—don’t try to snap a sound card or modem into one.
. An AGP slot is almost universally brown in
color, making it easy to spot.

PCI-X
PCI-X, already available in systems such as the Macintosh G5, is a huge
enhancement to the current PCI technology that is also fully backwardcompatible,
in terms of both hardware and software. PCI-X is a 64-bit-wide bus
Its slots will accept regular PCI cards. The real bonus of
PCI-X is its much enhanced speed. The PCI-X 2.0 standard features four speed
grades (measured in MHz): PCI-X 66, PCI-X 133, PCI-X 266, and PCI-X 533.
Mini-PCI
PCI has even made it into laptops in the specialty Mini-PCI format . You’ll findMini-PCI in just about every laptop these days.Mini-PCI
is designed to use low power and to lie flatboth good features for a laptop
expansion slot.
PCI Express
PCI Express (PCIe) is the latest, fastest, and most popular expansion bus in use
today. As its name implies, PCI Express is still PCI, but it uses a point-to-point
serial connection instead of PCI’s shared parallel communication. Consider a
single 32-bit chunk of data moving from a device to the CPU. In PCI parallel
communication, 32 wires each carry 1 bit of that chunk of data. In serial communication,
only one wire carries those 32 bits. You’d think that 32 are better
than 1, correct?Well, first of all, PCIe doesn’t share the bus.A PCIe device has its
own direct connection (a point-to-point connection) to the Northbridge, so it
does not wait for other devices. Plus, when things start going really fast (think
gigabits per second), it’s difficult to get all 32 bits of data to go from one device
to another at the same time because some bits get there slightly faster than
others. That means you need some serious, high-speed checking of the data
when it arrives to verify that it’s all there and in good shape. Serial data doesn’t
have this problem, as all the bits arrive one after the other in a single stream.
When data is really moving fast, a single point-to-point serial connection is
faster than a shared, 32-wire parallel connection.
And is PCIe fast! A PCIe connection uses one wire for sending and one for
receiving. Each of these pairs of wires between a PCIe controller and a device is
called a lane. Each lane runs at 2.5 Gbps. Better yet, each point-to-point connection
can use 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, 16, or 32 lanes to achieve a maximum bandwidth
of 160 Gbps. The effective data rate drops a little bit because of the encoding
scheme—the way the data is broken down and reassembled—but full duplex
data throughput can go up to a whopping 12.8 GBps on a ×32 connection.
The most common PCIe slot is the 16-lane (×16) version most commonly
used for video cards The first versions of PCIe
motherboards used a combination of a single PCIe ×16 slot and a number of
standard PCI slots. (Remember that PCI is designed to work with other expansion
slots, even other types of PCI.)
Local Lingo
PCIe When you talk about the lanes, such as ×1 or ×8, say “by” rather
than “ex” for the multiplication mark. So “by 1” and “by 8” are the correct
pronunciations. You’ll probably hear it referred to as “ex 8” and “8 ex”
for the next few years until the technology has become a household term.
The bandwidth generated by a ×16 slot is far more than anything other than
a video card would need, so most PCIe motherboards also contain slots with
fewer lanes. Currently ×1 and ×4 are the most common general-
purpose PCIe slots, but PCIe is still pretty new so expect things to change
as PCIe matures.

Touch Screens

A touch screen is a monitor with some type of sensing device across its face that
detects the location and duration of contact, usually by a finger or stylus. All
touch screens then supply this contact information to the PC as though it were a
click event from a mouse. Touch screens are used in situations for which conventional
mouse/keyboard input is either impossible or impractical.Here are a
few places you’ll see touch screens at work:
Information kiosks
PDAs
Point-of-sale systems
Tablet PCs
Touch screens can be separated into two groups: built-in screens like those in
PDAs, and stand-alone touch screen monitors like those used in many pointof-
sale systems. From a technician’s standpoint, you can think of a stand-alone
touch screen as amonitor with a built-in mouse.All touch screens will have a separate
USB or PS/2 port for the “mouse” part of the device, along with drivers that
you install just as you would for any USB mouse.

Biometric Devices


PCs use biometrics for security. Biometric security devices scan and remember
unique aspects of various body parts such as your retina, iris, head image, or fingerprint,
using some formof sensing device such as a retinal scanner. This information
is used as a key to prevent unauthorized people fromaccessing whatever
the biometric device is securing.Most biometric devices currently used in PCs
secure only themselves. The USB thumb drive in has a tiny finger-
USB thumb drive with fingerprint scanner (courtesy of Lexar
Media, Inc.)
print scanner. You slide your finger (any finger, you choose) over the drive to
unlock the contents of the thumb drive.
Less common are biometric security devices that secure entire computers.
The Microsoft fingerprint scanner is a USB device that replaces standard user
name and password security. When a program or Web site asks for a user name and password, you
simply press your finger against the fingerprint scanner. It will confirm your
identity (assuming your fingerprint matches), and then special software that
comes with the scanner will supply the program or Web site with your stored
user name and password.
No matter what biometric device you use, you follow the same steps to
make it work:
1. Install the device.
2. Register your identity with the device by sticking your eye, finger, or
other unique body part (why are you snickering?) into the device so it
can scan you.
3. Configure its software to tell the device what to do when it recognizes
your scanned identity.

scanner


A scanner enables you to make digital copies of existing paper photos, documents,
drawings, and more. Better scanners give you the option of copying directly
from a photographic negative or slide, providing images of stunning
visual quality—assuming the original photo was halfway decent, of course.
All consumer-level scanners—called flatbed scanners—work the same way.
You place a photo or another object facedown on the glass, close the lid, and
then use software to initiate the scan. The scanner runs a bright light along the
length of the glass tray once ormore to capture the image.

CMOS Setup Utility


The CMOS setup utility, stored in the system ROM, enables you to configure
important system BIOS settings stored in the CMOS chip that’s a part of the
Southbridge on most PCs. These settings include CPU setup, boot device sequence,

System BIOS and CMOS Setup Utility

System BIOS and
CMOS Setup Utility
You never deal directly with the many BIOS routines, but instead interact
with themonly peripherally through theCMOSsetup utility.Motherboard
manufacturers don’t actually write their own BIOS routines. Instead, they buy
BIOS from third-party BIOS makers; among the largest makers are American
Megatrends (AMI) and Phoenix Technologies. The latter produces BIOS under
both the Phoenix and Award brands. A great deal of uniformity exists among
brands of BIOS software, however, so from a technician’s point of view, there’s
not all that much of a difference between them.

Entering the CMOS Setup Utility


You can’t enter the CMOS setup utility from within your OS; you must do it
during the early stages of the boot process.Different BIOS makers specify different
methods for entering CMOS . The instructions for entering
CMOS appear on your monitor during bootup. Watch the messages carefully
and press the proper key when prompted.Typically,AMI and Award BIOS makers
have you press the DEL key when prompted. Phoenix might have you press
CTRL-ALT-ESC, or possibly F2. Check your motherboard documentation for the
exact method on your PC.
Once you enter CMOS, navigate with the keyboard (AMI provides mouse
support). Use the TAB and arrow keys to move around and the ENTER key to
make selections. This also varies according to which BIOS is installed on your
PC. Navigation instructions should be prominent in the display somewhere. If
you get stuck, press the F1 key to bring up a Help menu.
Let’s take a look at some of the more important CMOS settings.
SoftMenu The SoftMenu enables you to change the voltage and multiplier
settings on the motherboard for the CPU fromthe defaults.Motherboards that
cater to overclockers tend to have this option.Usually you just set this to Auto or
Default and stay away from this screen.

CMOS Setup Utility


The CMOS setup utility, stored in the system ROM, enables you to configure
important system BIOS settings stored in the CMOS chip that’s a part of the
Southbridge on most PCs. These settings include CPU setup, boot device sequence,

Updating the System BIOS


Techs refer to updating system BIOS as flashing the BIOS. It’s a simple procedure,
but youmust take care to ensure that it’s done correctly and without interruption.
A BIOS flash procedure that gets interrupted usually results in a PC
that won’t boot and a motherboard that’s rendered completely useless! Before
flashing your BIOS, back up your important documents and update any system
repair discs or emergency rescue diskettes.Do your best to make certain that the
process isn’t disturbed once you start.

System BIOS


The system BIOS contains many routines—called services—to initialize and
support the many devices that make up amodern PC. Services control things as
mundane as whether the NUM LOCK key is engaged at startup, to things as exotic-
sounding as the SDRAM precharge control, and beyond.
Unlike most types of PC software, BIOS routines rarely change. BIOS makers
update BIOS routines only to fix known bugs (thus enhancing stability) and to
add important functions such as compatibility with new hardware or hardware
standards.

System BIOS and CMOS Setup Utility


You never deal directly with the many BIOS routines, but instead interact
with themonly peripherally through theCMOSsetup utility.Motherboard
manufacturers don’t actually write their own BIOS routines. Instead, they buy
BIOS from third-party BIOS makers; among the largest makers are American
Megatrends (AMI) and Phoenix Technologies. The latter produces BIOS under
both the Phoenix and Award brands. A great deal of uniformity exists among
brands of BIOS software, however, so from a technician’s point of view, there’s
not all that much of a difference between them.

Beep Codes


Beep codes vary according to the PC’s BIOS manufacturer, although you’ll find
certain codes are common on most PCs. A single, happy-sounding chirp at
bootup signals that all is well. A long, repeating beep signals a problem with
RAM. A series of beeps—one long and three short—usually points to a problem
with the video card.

System ROM


The system ROM chip stores the system BIOS routines and CMOS setup
utility. SystemROMis distinctively labeled with the BIOS maker’s name, On older PCs, the BIOS routines were hard-coded onto the
FIGURE 7.1 POST card error code readout
system ROM chip, meaning that the BIOS were unchangeable without replacing
the entire ROM chip. Current motherboards use writable ROM chips such
as flash ROM. Writable ROM chips enable you to install updated BIOS information
without physically replacing the chip.

OS Loads


During POST, the BIOS also locates the system boot device—such as the floppy
disk, CD-ROM, or hard drive—that contains the OS. Once the POST process
completes successfully, the BIOS then passes control of the boot process over to
the PC’s OS. The exact loading process differs from one OS to the next, but in
general, one or more vital system files such as NTLDR (pronounced “NT
loader”) load into memory and start the ball rolling. Things move fast from
there, as the OS load its core files, drivers, and services into RAM.The next thing
you know, you’re looking at your desktop and hearing the soothing strains of
the Windows logon sound file.

POST Cards


POST cards aren’t the kind you use to send snail-mail holiday greetings.A POST
card,  is a dedicated hardware component that plugs into a
PCI slot and displays POST codes coming from the system BIOS.
The POST card uses an LED display to present special POST code listings
that the technician then interprets.Most POST cards comewith documentation
explaining the various error codes in general, but different BIOS manufacturers

Numeric and Text Codes


POST may also display numeric or text errors indicating the nature of a hardware
problem. Numeric error codes are somewhat standardized into certain
code ranges. For instance, an error code in the range 100–199 indicates a motherboard
error, 200–299 indicates a RAM error, and 300–399 indicates a keyboard
error.
Text errors tend to be fairly direct statements, such as “Floppy drive failure”
or “Keyboard error or no keyboard present,” that display on your monitor and
usually require you to press a key such as F1 to continue.
Some hardware problems prevent any POST errors fromproperly appearing
on the display screen or coming through the system speaker. In these cases, a
special hardware tool called a POST card comes in handy.

Beep Codes


Beep codes vary according to the PC’s BIOS manufacturer, although you’ll find
certain codes are common on most PCs. A single, happy-sounding chirp at
bootup signals that all is well. A long, repeating beep signals a problem with
RAM. A series of beeps—one long and three short—usually points to a problem
with the video card.

POST Error Codes

As you may have guessed, the POST process is the most vital of the steps in the
boot process. It’s during POST that any serious low-level hardware errors come
to light. The way that the PC communicates POST errors is through special
sound codes called beep codes and through text or numeric messages displayed
on your monitor.

Boot Process and POST


The three main stages of the boot process are the power-on, power-on self test
(POST), and operating system (OS) loading steps.
Power-on/CPU Wakes
You start the process by powering the systemon, sending current to the motherboard
and drives. Assuming your power supply is in good working order, a special
wire on the CPU called the power good wire is charged, telling it to wake up.
The CPU then communicates with the system ROM chip and starts the BIOS
programs.
POST
Unlike a person who wakes up knowing who they are and how many fingers
they have, a computer literally rediscovers itself every time it powers up. This is
done via the POST process.During POST, the systemBIOS communicates with

Back Up and Restore Existing Data, if Necessary

Whether you are installing or upgrading, you may need to back up existing user
data before installing or upgrading because things can go wrong either way, and
the data on the hard drive might be damaged. You’ll need to find out where the
user is currently saving data files. If files are being saved onto the local hard
drive, itmust be backed up before the installation or replacement takes place, to
preserve the data.However, if all data has been saved to a network location, you
are in luck because the data is safe from damage during installation.
If the user saves data locally, and the computer is connected to a network,
save the data, at least temporarily, to a network location until after the upgrade
or installation has taken place. If the computer is not connected to a network,
but the computer has a burnable optical drive, copy the data to CDs or DVDs.
Wherever you save the data, youwill need to copy or restore any lost or damaged
data back to the local hard disk after the installation.

How to boot\format windows 7

1.Open your computers bios 
2.keep cd-rom in first priority and save it
3. after the in the screen "press any keep to boot Will appear" press any key you want
4.after that it load its file
5.press install
6.choose if you want to upgrade or  custom to format
7.click in drive option and format which drive you want format
6.after that setup will start and follow the instruction..

Multiboot


A third option that you need to be aware of is dual boot ormultiboot installation.
BothWindows 2000 andWindows XP can install in a separate folder fromyour
existing copy of Windows. Then every time your computer boots, you’ll get a
menu asking you which version of Windows you wish to boot. Multiboot
sounds great, but it has lots of nasty little problems. For example, let’s say you’ve
got a systemrunningWindowsMe that you would like to upgrade toWindows XP.
WindowsMemust use either a FAT or a FAT32 file system;Windows XP can use
these old file systems, but you’ll miss out on the benefits of using NTFS.

Upgrade Installation

In an upgrade installation, the new OS installs into the same folders as the old
OS, or in tech speak, the new installs on top of the old. The new OS replaces the
old OS but retains all saved data and inherits all the previous settings (such as
font styles, desktop colors and background, and so on), hardware, and applications.
You don’t have to reinstall your favorite programs!
To begin the upgrade of Windows, you must run the appropriate program
fromthe CD-ROM.This usually means inserting aWindows 2000 orWindows XP
installation CD-ROM into your system while your old OS is running, which
will start the install program. Then, to do an upgrade, you indicate that
Windows 2000 or XP should install into a directory that already contains an
installation of Windows (it will do this by default). You will be asked whether it
is an upgrade or a new installation; if you select new installation, it will remove
the existing OS before installing.
If for some reason the install program doesn’t start automatically, go to My
Computer, open the CD-ROM,and locate WINNT32.EXE. This programstarts
an upgrade to Windows 2000 or XP.

Clean Installation

A clean installation usually begins with a completely empty hard disk. The advantage
to doing a clean installation is that you don’t carry problems from the
old OS over to the new one, but the disadvantage is that all applications have to
be reinstalled and the desktop and each application reconfigured to the user’s
preferences. You perform a clean install by resetting your CMOS to tell the system
to boot from the optical drive before your hard drive. You then boot off a
Windows 2000 or XP installation CD-ROM, and Windows will give you the
opportunity to partition and format the hard drive and then install Windows.

Perform a Clean Installation or an Upgrade


A clean installation of an OS involves installing it onto an empty hard drive with
no previous OS installed. An upgrade installation is an installation of an OS on
top of an earlier installed version, thus inheriting all previous hardware and
software settings.
Youmay think the choice between doing a clean installation and an upgrade
installation is simple: you do a clean installation on a brand new computer with
an empty hard drive, and you do an upgrade of a pre-existing installation. It isn’t
necessarily so! I’ll tell you why as we look at this issue more closely.

Verify Hardware and Software Compatibility


Assuming your system meets the requirements, you next need to find out how
well Windows supports the brand and model of hardware and the application
software you intend to use underWindows. You have two basic sources for this
information:Microsoft and the manufacturer of the device or software.How do
you access this information? Use the Web!
If you’re installingWindows XP, the SetupWizard automatically checks your
hardware and software and reports any potential conflicts. But please don’t wait
until you are all ready to install to check this out.With any flavor of Windows,

Identify Hardware Requirements
Hardware requirements help you decidewhether a computer systemis a reasonable
host for a particular operating system(OS).Requirements include the CPU
model, the amount of RAM, the amount of free hard disk space, and the video
adapter, display, and storage devices that may be required to install and run
the OS. They are stated as minimums or, more recently, as recommended
minimums. Although you could install an OS on a computer with the old
minimums that Microsoft published, they were not realistic if you actually
wanted to accomplish work.With the last few versions ofWindows,Microsoft
has published recommended minimums that are much more realistic. You
will find the published minimums on the packaging and at Microsoft’s Web
site (microsoft.com).

Identify Hardware Requirements


Hardware requirements help you decidewhether a computer systemis a reasonable
host for a particular operating system(OS).Requirements include the CPU
model, the amount of RAM, the amount of free hard disk space, and the video
adapter, display, and storage devices that may be required to install and run
the OS. They are stated as minimums or, more recently, as recommended
minimums. Although you could install an OS on a computer with the old
minimums that Microsoft published, they were not realistic if you actually
wanted to accomplish work.With the last few versions ofWindows,Microsoft
has published recommended minimums that are much more realistic. You
will find the published minimums on the packaging and at Microsoft’s Web
site (microsoft.com).